The House of Parliament, today
(article dédié à Alexis)
Parliament's status has been debated for centuries all along the English history. Sometimes it was about to disappear completely, but survived the tumultuous political changes until the XIXth century and beyond. As its power always fluctuated, it would be interesting to follow it during the 600 years of its evolution. I will first study its creation until its quite great prevalence, then I will try to explain its breakdown, its rebellions and the reasons, and finally, I will try to explain why and how it regained all its power from the beginning.
The seeds of parlementarian monarchy were sown in 1258, when Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, sick with the King's spendings, took power from Henry III. Using the 1218 Provision of Oxford, he elected a council of nobles only, or "magnates", in other words: dukes, marquesses, earls, viscounts and barons. It represented the House of the Lords in the new institution called "parliament" or "parlement" from the French word meaning "discussion meeting". It made statute, wrote laws and made political decisions. That is to say, it had legislative and executive power. It also took control of the treasury and forced Henry III to get rid of his foreign advisors. It was quite revolutionnary, maybe too much and too early, because it did not last too long.
In 1272, Edward I, succeeding to his father, brought together the first real Parliament creating the House of commons, with not nobles only but also wealthy people (merchants from a rising bourgeoisie) and gentry (knights and wealthy freemen). With them, there were two commoners or representatives (the King wanted money from them, they weren't very happy about that, but they came all the same) that's how the most important foundation of the English parliamentarian Monarchy: "no taxation without representation". It was in order to raise taxes more easily with representatives summoned from each town and shire. The other reason was that the King needed a wider range of his subjects than normally to discuss the realm's problems.
The first official assembly called "Parliament" gathered in 1290, it was known as the "community of the realm". Many shires created a community so it was obvious that a representative should join the Parliament. It was now made of Magnates, knights (called to the parliament by the commoners in order to support them against the greater nobility), yeomen and burgesses. By 1300, Magnates could not make decisions on their own, they needed people's representatives' acceptance, that's how the Commons grew more powerful.
A clear definition of it was written by Edward I himself, to the earl of Cornwall, in 1295:
"because we wish to have colloquy and to treat with you and the rest of the principal men of our kingdom, to provide for remedies against the dangers which in these days are threatening our whole kingdom [...] we command you [...] that [...] you be present on person to treat, ordain and act, together with us and the prelates, and the rest of the principal men and other inhabitants of our kingdom"
During the XIVth Century, Parliament became an essential part of the Government, involving all counties and town between Carlisle and Cornwall, Shrewsbury and Suffolk. It met once a year during the century between 1327 and 1427, a unique phenomenon in medieval Europe. It took care of important matters of business and minor matters raised by individuals. It had monopoly of taxing, it was the highest court, it made laws and modified the existing ones. Commoners had freedom of speech and from arrest during the parliamentary sittings.
As for the financial side, in 1327, Edward III asked Parliament for money, and to see the royal account, it shows that those matters were still the House's hands. It also influenced the king's policies at home and abroad. As the MPs wanted to protect their interests (we remember they were land owners or merchants, for the most) they supported Edward in his was against France as it threatened the trade of wool with Flanders.
But we can see that Parliament also linked with simplier people's fate. For instance, the division of this power between the two parts, Lords and Commons was strengthen by the death of feudalism. Or, by 1350, The King and his Parliament tried to prevent the wages to increase, because the poor asked for higher salaries ("thanks" to the Plague).
Parliament power is fully established as it enabled itself to criticize the ministers in 1376, or to attack the King's closest associates, in 1386. As for the Commons, since that date, taxes had to be granted mostly by it, and not by the Lords. A detail that reflected the evolution of the whole society: since 1399, under Henry IV, English was officially spoken in the Parliament.
By 1485, Henry VII used Parliament only to pass laws. In the early XVIth century, it met only when the king ordered it, it could meet twice a year, but then, it might not meet again for 6 years. In the first 44 years of Tudor's reign, it only met 20 times, that is to say every 3 years from 1453 to 1509.
During this century power moved from the House of Lords to the House of Commons as it became richer and more influent. Getting rid of the House of Lord was then suggested for the first time. Besides, the size of the Commons doubled as a result of the territory extension. But it still did not really represent the people ...Parliament's functioning was stated as the Speaker had for task to make sure that they discuss what the King wanted, but also...that they made the decision he wanted. For instance, agreeing to the taxes needed (taxes brought much more money when it was raised by the Parliament than by the King alone), making the law which the Crown wanted, advising the Crown when it asked for it. In exchange freedom of speech, from fear of arrest, meeting and speaking to the monarch was offered to the MPs.
But under Henry VIII (since 1509), it was used only to raise money for his wars and during his struggle against Rome. Indeed, between 1532 and 1536, the King and his chancellor Thomas Cromwell passed number of Acts to make his break with Rome legal: The Act in Restraint of Appeals ( which prevented appealing to Rome), the Sovereign State Act (no church implication in the king's decisions), The Ecclesiastical Appointment Act, The Treason Act and the Act of Supremacy (which placed the King at the head of the Church of England) On the other hand, he wanted to make sure that the powerful representatives of shires and towns were on his side in order to keep control upon popular feeling. Later, it gave to the Parliament a level of authority it never had before. In 1532, Cromwell made the Parliament a help to the Tudor's supremacy as he managed it himself: power of Parliament increased as the king owed his own power to it.
The Parliament also went trough several internal changes, when in 1536, Welshmen entered the English parliament as Wales joined England under one administration. Religiously speaking, the same year, dissolution of monasteries made it lay, it also released a new prayer book to be used in all churches and forbade to the catholic mass, under Edward VI.
In 1553, it reached the top of its power as Queen Mary asked Parliament about her marriage with Philip of Spain, which unwillingly accepted Philip as king of England for Mary's lifetime. It was notably strong because a woman ruled. There is an exeption for Elizabeth, who did not need to held many Parliaments, for she was feared ans respected by the MPs.
In about 1600, merchants and members of the gentry provided the king with money, made alliances: the Commons' power was constantly growing.
As James I reigned over Scotland before he inherited the throne of England, he was used to an obedient and quiet parliament. Under his reign, the English one met only one month in six. In 1605, he created the Tax of Custom Duty by himself, which angered the MPs. From 1611 to 1621 James I managed to rule the country without Parliament thanks to the peace among England and the surrounding European countries. Parliament agreed to create an other tax in order to pay the debt leaved by Elizabeth I but in exchange it wanted to have the right to discuss the King's home and foreign policies. Faithful to the traditional beliefs, James insisted on his divine right to reign alone, a behaviour Parliament could not bear since years. Then, Edward Coke (Elizabeth's minister) was made Chief Justice by James but his idea was that laws can be passed only by an act of Parliament. James removed him for these too progressive way of thinking. Coke reminded all the same Parliament of Magna Carta, which he called "great charter of English freedom". Feeling bolder in 1618, Parliament wanted to make war against Catholics in Europe, and until James' death in 1625, they quarrelled about it.
Charles I, his son, had the same ancient vision of the King's power. He had a catholic wife, which was against the Parliament's opinion. In 1628, it wrote the Petition of Rights: the king had to give management of state money back to Parliament (and to stop absolutist practices such as forced loans, arbitrary arrest etc.) Charles dissolved it the next year, realizing it was too much power and fearing it. He ruled quite successfully without it for a few years, raising enough money, and he did so well that in 1637, at the high of the King's power, Parliament might have never met again. These ten years were called the "Personal Rule".
In 1638, he recalled it, really in need of money in order to flow a religous Scottish rebellion back. In exchange of its help, Parliament passed a new law: it would meet once every three years. Two years after, John Pym, at the head of the parliament, took radical measures: he wanted abolition of laws that prevented government from being parliamentarian. He also made Parliament able to meet regularly in order to take care of their ancient duties and even to have the right to appoint and dismiss the privy councillors.
In 1641, as Ireland rebelled, Charles raised an army in order to run it down, but popular opinion feared it was just a reason to have the power to dissolve parliament by strength. The next year, the kings tried to arrest five MPs, he did not succeed but people did not trust him anymore: London closed its gates against the King who moved to Nottingham and raised an other army. Civil war broke out. Most of Lords and few Commoners supported Charles. Parliament ruled East Anglia and the South East, including London. Their soldiers were named "Roundheads" because of their short hair, the opponents "Cavaliers". Parliament raised new taxes on order to pay the war. In 1647, Civil war was becoming too messy for the realm and the majority of the MPs wanted the king back. During the Pride's purge (Colonel Thomas Pride's troops forcibly removed from the House of Commons all those who were not supporters of the Independents) half of the commons were arrested, 2/3 of remainders boycotted it. In weeks that followed, only 6 MPs sat. Less than 1 out of 10 voted for the trial. Shortly after, one of the main commandants, Oliver Cromwell, a Protestant, created the first British regular army and had the King Charles captured thanks to the Scottish Army who got him. The King was executed on the 31st January 1649. From that year, the "Rump Parliament" (only made of Commons) which the one who remained, it was conservative and because of that, dissolved by Cromwell in 1653. He decided to rule by himself by creating the Protectorate. On the 19th May 1649, he released "An act declaring England to be a Commonwealth". Britain remained a Republic until 1660, with a far more severe government than Charles. After Cromwell's death, and seing that his son was unable to rule, the "Convention" Parliament decided Charles II was the legal King of England.
When Charles II came to power, parliament was weak again, and inefficient. A loyal group of royalists met every year for 18 years, it was called the "Cavalier Parliament". Its inexpediency could be explained by the rivalry dividing the two Houses. It grew strongly Anglican and would not allow Catholics or puritans to meet freely, that's why it passed the Test Act in 1673 which forbade public offices for the Catholics. Later, it passed an Act forbidding any catholic to be in Lords or Commons.
The two first real political parties had been created during this period: the "Whigs" (which was a rude word for cattle drivers) were parliamentarists. They were afraid of an absolute monarchy, against a regular army, and as the feared the catholic faith, they were for religious freedom. Charles' brother, James, was a catholic, so the Whigs obviously did not wanted him as a king. The Tories (which was the Irish name for thieves) were royalists and upheld the authority of the Crown and Church.
Tories and Anglicans of Parliament did not grant James II the return of the State to the Catholic Church. Then it invited William of Orange -a Dutch aristocrat, James's son-in law- to invade Britain, the King's mental breakdown allowed him to do so. He entered London but the Crown was only offered to Mary, James' daughter. As he insisted, Parliament gave the Crown to both. The fact it made him King means that it was more powerful than him, and it would remain so. Since then, it met every year and the Crown's power went weaker as it has almost nothing to say in the following century about reforms or politics. Parliament's supremacy was established by the Bill of Rights, in December 1689. By this, the King wasn't able to raise taxes, to keep an army by himself or to act against an MP who had freedom of speech and were free elected. Themselves grew stronger as the bourgeoisie and the gentry worked together all along the XVIIIth century, so they became the most powerful class. At the same time, a real policy lead by ministers supported by the Parliament (on the contrary of all other monarchs in Europe). But still a small number of people attended to it. Landowning aristocrats controlled the ones who sat in it, which was not so democratic indeed...
Still involved in religious matters, Parliament released an Act of Settlement which instituted that only a Protestant can inherit the crown in 1701, a rule that still exists.
Also, during the XVIII, a reform for a fairer Parliament was made by fear of revolution and in order to improve the social conditions. It was quite tricky as, on one hand, the Tories thought parliament should represent property and property owners and on the other hand, Radicals thought it should represent the people. The Whigs (or liberals - as they will be called later), more moderate, wanted a little change, enough to avoid revolution. Later, in 1830, Commons wanted a complete reform but it was turned down by the House of Lords. The same year, Lord Grey instituted a Whig government and created a new reform. After this, Scottish voters increased and 41 English towns were represented for the first time. In 1828, Catholics and Non conformists (puritans) were allowed in Parliament and an other Reform Bill in 1832 allowed urban society to develop. These last reforms finalized at the same time the modernization of the whole English state, and the complete control of Parliament over English politics.
As we can see it, despite all the problems it had encounter - fey monarchs, gory wars, and other religious catastrophes- Parliament managed to more or less fulfil its missions and most of all, to survive. It progressively gained power when it was mistreated by the Crown, and was only "asleep" when it seemed to be doomed. The most interesting thing is the fact that it is the earliest and the most impressive experience of parliamentarian Monarchy in all of Europe. Maybe the same reasons of this almost "political miracle" allowed it to be efficient even until now. |
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